how did islam spread through military conquest

Read more. Either way, did it happen a lot, or did Europeans just seize upon it as another way to disrespect Muslims? Trade contributed to the spread of Islamic culture and led to a growing feeling of internationalism. The Arab Caliphate was pushed back by Charles Martel (Frankish Mayor of the Palace) at Poitiers, and Christian armies started pushing southwards over the mountains, until Charlemagne established in 801 the Spanish March (which stretched from Barcelona to present day Navarre). So to some degree, those who would see the nuance in this passage, The Umayyads shifted the capital from Mecca to Syria and replaced tribal traditions with an imperial government controlled by a monarch. What was recognizably an Islamic world had emerged by the end of the 10th century. By the time of the Prophet Muhammad's death in A.D. 632, the Muslims had already subdued and converted their pagan opponents within the Arabian peninsula through wars that Muslims fought largely in self-defense. [51], Islam was readily accepted by Zoroastrians who were employed in industrial and artisan positions because, according to Zoroastrian dogma, such occupations that involved defiling fire made them impure. By the 10th century, the Kilwa Sultanate was founded by Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi (was one of seven sons of a ruler of Shiraz, Persia, his mother an Abyssinian slave girl. Between the eighth and ninth centuries, Arab traders and travelers, then African clerics, began to spread the religion along the eastern coast of Africa and to the western and central Sudan (literally, "Land of Black people"), stimulating the development of urban communities. "In others, it appealed to During the seventh century, after subduing rebellions in the Arabian peninsula, Arab Muslim armies began to swiftly conquer territory in the neighboring Byzantine and Sasanian empires and beyond. Tariq ibn Ziyad was a Muslim general who led the Islamic conquest of Visigothic Hispania in 711-718 A.D. [26] Governors lodged complaints with the caliph when he enacted laws that made conversion easier since that deprived the provinces of revenues from the tax on non-Muslims. The caliph, then in Medina, agreed to these terms and travelled to Jerusalem to sign the capitulation in the spring of 637. Without their help, for example, Andalusia could never have been incorporated into the Islamic state. are destroyed or killed, or God might command his subjugated in most cases. Some Ismaili missionaries traveled to India and employed effort to make their religion acceptable to the Hindus. Significant conversions also occurred beyond the extent of the empire such as that of the Turkic tribes in Central Asia and peoples living in regions south of the Sahara in Africa through contact with Muslim traders active in the area and Sufi orders. In 1238 James I of Aragon took Valencia. Much of this contact was motivated by interest in trans-Saharan trade, particularly the slave trade. As commerce grew in the region with the rest of the Muslim world, Islamic influence extended to the court even as the empires political power waned and so by the time Raja Kertawijaya converted in 1475 at the hands of Sufi Sheikh Rahmat, the Sultanate was already of a Muslim character. "Until they fight you there. Many women helped to spread Islam, even taking part in battles themselves. A painting depicting the siege of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258. Direct link to Ameen Aldubaisi's post Through the trades with o, Posted 3 years ago. "And do not fight them There are many accounts from the period about the early Muslim conquests, but much of the material is unreliable and written to present things in a way that glorified the victors and their God As explanations for the great events of the seventh century these are at best partial. Analyzes how expansion of the islamic world through military conquest led to the spread of islam. Ottoman Connections to the Malay World: Islam, Law and Society, Kuala Lumpur: The Other Press, 2011 (, This page was last edited on 21 April 2023, at 00:45. () The status of Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians was more precisely defined, and in some ways it was inferior. 227-228. When the Franciscan friar William of Rubruck visited the encampment of Batu Khan of the Golden Horde, who had recently (in the 1240s) completed the Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria, he noted "I wonder what devil carried the law of Machomet there". A long period of instability and dissatisfaction had left them ambivalent toward their previous rulers. When the new one is better, you switch. Extensive trade networks throughout North and West Africa created a medium through which Islam spread peacefully, initially through the merchant class. The last Muslim kingdom of Granada in the south was finally taken in 1492 by Queen Isabelle of Castille and Ferdinand of Aragon. [39] (Other sources question how much the native population welcomed the conquering Muslims.)[40]. They replaced Greek, Persian, and Coptic with Arabic as the main administrative language and reinforced an Arab Islamic identity. Direct link to JaydinA's post the world and the New cul, Posted 3 months ago. The Abbasids five-century existence finally came to an end with the Mongol sacking of Baghdad in 1258. at do hint at these early caliphates weren't that The spread of Islam through merchants, missionaries, and pilgrims was very different in nature. conversion blended together, he's referring to these ideas that maybe for some people it just appealed to them. Posted 6 years ago. Later, the Ottoman Empire set on to conquer territories from these rivals: Cyprus and other Greek islands (except Crete) were lost by Venice to the Ottomans, and the latter conquered territory up to the Danube basin as far as Hungary. They also conquered areas such as, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Persain land from the Byzantian and Sassanian empire. A drawing showing a man practicing with a lance, a long weapon with a wooden shaft and a pointed steel head, formerly used by a horseman in charging. excerpts is this one. Direct link to Anastasia Cagle's post It's really just the feat, Posted 4 years ago. On his way to Volga Bulgaria, Ibn Fadlan brought detailed reports of the Rus, claiming that some had converted to Islam. According to historians, through the zealous missionary work of Samanid rulers, as many as 30,000 tents of Turks came to profess Islam and later under the Ghaznavids higher than 55,000 under the Hanafi school of thought. [27] That theory does not explain the continuing existence of large minorities of Christians during the Abbasids. [49] Moreover, toward the 19th century, the Nigeria based Sokoto Caliphate led by Usman dan Fodio exerted considerable effort in spreading Islam. [77] In 1295 however, the new Khan of the Ilkhanate, Ghazan, converted to Islam, and two decades later the Golden Horde under Uzbeg Khan (reigned 13131341) followed suit. A drawing of a group of people traveling on horseback in a straight line. [79] However, during the next three centuries these Buddhist, Shamanistic and Christian Turkic and Mongol nomads of the Kazakh Steppe and Xinjiang would also convert at the hands of competing Sufi orders from both east and west of the Pamirs. community, of the ummah, goes to the kalifs, and Military campaigns continued without pause. The Muslim community spread through the Middle East through conquest, and the resulting growth of the Muslim state provided the ground in which the recently revealed faith could take root. Direct link to David Alexander's post You make a good point and, Posted a year ago. For example, interaction between Arab Muslim forces and the Tang dynasty may have resulted in the exchange of the technology of paper, which revolutionized the Muslim world and later traveled to Europe. Direct link to David Alexander's post Judaism and Christianity , Posted 5 years ago. 205. Byzantine rule was ended by the Arabs, who invaded Tunisia from 647 to 648[41] and Morocco in 682 in the course of their drive to expand the power of Islam. True, the statements surrounding victories all celebrated the incorporation of territory into Muslim domains, but the actual Ottoman focus was on taxation and making the realms productive, and a religious campaign would have disrupted that economic objective. Islam spread primarily through military conquest taking control of lands from Spain to the borders of China and India. revelation is believed, according to Islamic tradition, to have come down when the Muslims were actively being persecuted This page is best viewed in an up-to-date web browser with style sheets (CSS) enabled. The Dome was built in 780, while the mosque was completed in 715. In 670, the Arab general and conqueror Uqba Ibn Nafi established the city of Kairouan (in Tunisia) and its Great Mosque also known as the Mosque of Uqba;[42] the Great Mosque of Kairouan is the ancestor of all the mosques in the western Islamic world. A distinct Muslim community, the Panthays, was established in the region by the late 13th century. [60] These are typically represented by the following schools of thought:[60], Muslim missionaries played a key role in the spread of Islam in India with some missionaries even assuming roles as merchants or traders. In the 1330s, the Mongol ruler of the Chagatai Khanate (in Central Asia) converted to Islam, causing the eastern part of his realm (called Moghulistan) to rebel. In Malabar, Muslims are called Mappila. People disagreed with this event because they had different perspectives on what were the main events for Islam spreading so quickly. From there Arab trade routes into the interior of Africa helped the slow acceptance of Islam. "Such is the recompense While you will be able to view the content of this page in your current browser, you will not be able to get the full visual experience. Societal Islamization has historically occurred over the course of many centuries since the spread of Islam outside of the Arabian Peninsula through the early Muslim conquests, with notable shifts occurring in the Levant, Iran, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, West Africa,[15] Central Asia, South Asia (in Afghanistan, Maldives, Pakistan, and Bangladesh), Southeast Asia (in Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia), Southeastern Europe (in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Kosovo, among others), Eastern Europe (in the Caucasus, Crimea, and the Volga), and Southern Europe (in Spain, Portugal, and Sicily prior to re-Christianizations). According to Ibn Batuta, the Khaljis encouraged conversion to Islam by making it a custom to have the convert presented to the Sultan who would place a robe on the convert and award him with bracelets of gold. [18], Within the century of the establishment of Islam upon the Arabian Peninsula and the subsequent rapid expansion during the early Muslim conquests, one of the most significant empires in world history was formed. The first three decades of Charlemagne's reign were dominated by military campaigns, which were prompted by a variety of factors: the need to defend his realm against external foes and internal separatists, a desire for conquest and booty, a keen sense of opportunities offered by changing power relationships, and an urge to spread Christianity. They created a sense of internationalism and multiculturalism. For example, the Fatimids and Berber dynasties in North Africa were able to expand into Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Ghaznavids stretched farther into India. Now those who would defend or see a little bit more nuance here, would say, look, you've got to, this is not talking about Direct link to cac.hwaarcher's post How did women contribute , Posted 3 years ago. that we're talking about though in this map. Historians believed that Islam spread for the reasons of trade, military conquest, and the treaty. of the disbelievers. Muslims of Central Asian origin played a major role in the Mongol conquest of China. After the death of Muhammad (PBUH), his companion Abu Bakr became the Caliph because he was considered the closest and most knowledgable about Islam to the Muslims. The Umayyads did not actively encourage conversion, and most subjects remained non-Muslim. the Balkans, and India," so these are regions that we was, in fact, rare, "Muslim conquerors Analyzes how the appeal of the qur'an's messages resulted in the spread of islam. The victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in the 7th century had a significant impact on local merchants and sailors, as their trading partners in Arabia had then all adopted Islam, and the major trading routes in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea came under the sway of the Muslim Caliphs. Trade played the biggest role of why it spread so quickly because it went to Spain, Africa, and Europe. Through his death in this battle and his extended campaign, Uqbah became the legendary hero of the Muslim conquest of the Maghrib. Direct link to looyrocks's post When Zoroastrianism and I, Posted 6 years ago. to spread this rapidly. and unto my religion." In the wake of the Ridda wars, and of the Arabs' sudden conquest of most of the Near East, the new religion became identified more sharply as a monotheism for the Arab people. So a critical view of this is saying, look, this is clearly interested in conversion. 74, Sturrock, J., South Canara and Madras District Manual (2 vols., Madras, 1894-1895), Eaton, "5. How did Islam come to be one of the most popular and influential religions in the world? They were in Medina. Direct link to Steve Schroeder's post Hi Evan, thanks for the q, Posted 2 years ago. Towards the end of the Abbasid caliphate, the formerly vast and united Islamic empire became fragmented and decentralized. [19] The earlier period also saw the acceleration in the rate of conversions in the Muslim heartland, and in the wake of the conquests, the newly-conquered regions retained significant non-Muslim populations. The first Indian mosque is thought to have been built in 629CE, purportedly at the behest of an unknown Chera dynasty ruler, during the lifetime of Muhammad (c.571632) in Kodungallur, in district of Thrissur, Kerala by Malik Bin Deenar. Only the Arabian Peninsula had a higher proportion of Muslims among the population.[23]. Were Muslims and Christians fighting over land or differences in religious belief ? Direct link to Ricshawna Williams's post who did the first four ca, Posted 4 years ago. However, the era that followed under the rule . Without a doubt, military conquest was key in Islam's rapid spread. While it entailed the acceptance of new religious beliefs and membership in a new religious community, most converts retained a deep attachment to the cultures and communities from which they came."[24]. I looked it up and this is what I found How did Islam influence and change Turkey's culture? "And kill them wherever you overtake them "and expel them from wherever Arab or Turkish conquerors." As a clarification question, is this supposed to mean that the early Muslims were conquering territory for a kingdom, like Rome, Greece, and Persia in earlier times? In such a fashion the city persisted as a religious community under an Arab Muslim domination more welcome and more tolerant than that of Byzantium. As Islamic ideas and cultures came into contact with new societies, they were expressed in unique ways and ultimately took on diverse forms. taking territory from them. Ultimately, there were many factions that regarded the Umayyads as corrupt and illegitimate, some of whom rallied around new leaders. However, they changed the social hierarchy by constructing a more inclusive government in a more cosmopolitan capital city, Baghdad. It is now apparent that conversion by force, while not unknown in Muslim countries, was, in fact, rare. Direct link to Alasal, Fendh's post how did the culture Islam, Posted 3 years ago. As a result, we encounter multiple different interpretations of Islam across many different Islamic societies. Warriors are crossing water and land, charging a fortified area,. Ira Lapidus points towards "interwoven terms of political and economic benefits and of a sophisticated culture and religion" as appealing to the masses. They have come as immigrants, guest workers, asylum seekers or as part of family reunification. Islam spread more rapidly throughout the World than any other religion without the aid of military conquest. of not just the Koran, but including the Bible, which is believed to first be written in Aramaic, or the Old Testament, the Andalusia, http://www.islamicity.com/mosque/ihame/Sec5.htm [19] For the subjects of the empire, formerly of the Byzantine and the Sasanian Empires, not much changed in practice. Under the Umayyads, a dynastic and centralized Islamic political state emerged. The Dome was built in 789, while the mosque was completed in 715. Direct link to David Alexander's post Man, that looks like a ho, Posted 4 years ago. As is well known, the Arabs made no attempt to impose their faith on their new subjects, and at first in fact discouraged conversions on the part of non-Arabs. During these hundreds of years and expansion of the Islamic Empire . Kurdish leaders, like. with that ruling class, that might be a worldly motivation in order to actually convert. "The question of why Richard Bulliet's "conversion curve" shows a relatively low rate of conversion of non-Arab subjects during the Arab centric Umayyad period of 10%, in contrast with estimates for the more politically-multicultural Abbasid period, which saw the Muslim population grow from around 40% in the mid-9th century to close to 100% by the end of the 11th century. If you lived in the Islamic empire, and were not Muslim, what did you have to do? Keep in mind, this is spreading, overtaking, conquering, For four months, the siege continued. They weren't persecuted or anything like that, but they weren't treated exactly like the Islamic people. [47] However, in the same time period, the number of Christians also grew in Africa, from 8.7 million in 1900 to 346 million in 2000, surpassing both the total population as well as the growth rate of Islam on the continent. Explain the causes of the expansion of Muslim rule; how and where did it expand before 1450? It is no surprise that the Roman Catholic areas of Bosnia, Kosovo and northern Albania, ended up with more substantial conversions to Islam. The people of the Islamic world created numerous sophisticated centers of culture and science with far-reaching mercantile networks, travelers, scientists, hunters, mathematicians, physicians, and philosophers, all contributing to the Islamic Golden Age. Having accepted the surrender, Omar then entered Jerusalem with Sophronius "and courteously discoursed with the patriarch concerning its religious antiquities". Along these trade routes, merchant communities developed. This conquest was made much easier by the weakness of the Sassanid Empire, which was wounded by internal conflicts and a lengthy war with the Byzantine Empire. If you're seeing this message, it means we're having trouble loading external resources on our website. Direct link to Yesenia's post How were non-Arabs treate, Posted 3 years ago. little bit more conciliatory. Sufi missionaries navigated these difficulties adeptly, making Islam appealing by assimilating it into existing religious traditions. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. [4], While there were cases such as the Sassanid army division at Hamra, that converted en masse before pivotal battles such as the Battle of al-Qdisiyyah, conversion was fastest in the urban areas where Arab forces were garrisoned slowly leading to Zoroastrianism becoming associated with rural areas. Read more. A Pew Forum study, published in January 2011, forecast an increase of the proportion of Muslims in the European population from 6% in 2010 to 8% in 2030. [25] Throughout the period, as well as in the following centuries, divisions occurred between Persians and Arabs, and Sunnis and Shias, and unrest in provinces empowered local rulers at times.[23]. As a result, vast areas of the Balkans remained mostly Christian during the period of Ottoman domination. [45], Robert Hoyland argues that the missionary efforts of the relatively small number of Arab conquerors in Persian lands led to "much interaction and assimilation" between rulers and ruled, and to descendants of the conquerors adapting the Persian language and Persian festivals and culture,[52] (Persian being the language of modern-day Iran, while Arabic is spoken by its neighbors to the west.). [73] A centuries later example that can be counted amongst the earliest introductions of Islam into Eastern Europe came about through the work of an early 11th-century Muslim prisoner whom the Byzantines captured during one of their wars against Muslims. There might have been some support that allowed it to spread this quickly. From the Subhat al-Akhbar, a 17th-century Ottoman painting. "Unto you your religion there definitely are more militant portions of the Koran. Conversion from other religions like Christianity and Judaism was relatively easy and quick due to shared religious ideas. The spread of Islam was both a political and religious phenomenon, so sort of a combination of both - Muslim rulers gained control of these areas and some of their followers stayed with them, and some people who lived in these areas became Muslims, and Islam was also spread via trade beyond areas under Muslim control. How did the caliphate develop after the death of Muhammad? especially in modern times. The Muslim community spread through the Middle East through conquest, and the resulting growth of the Muslim state provided the ground in which the recently revealed faith could take root and flourish. Direct link to Brent Steele's post Were Muslims and Christia, Posted a month ago. If you're seeing this message, it means we're having trouble loading external resources on our website. [27] Around 930 a law was enacted that required all bureaucrats of the empire to be Muslims. Direct link to BetFox20's post How did Islam influence a, Posted 3 years ago. No previous conqueror had tried to assimilate the Berbers, but the Arabs quickly converted them and enlisted their aid in further conquests. Despite the great mass of words, the full explanation for Muslim victory still eludes us. Another reason for Islam spreading is their religious views and spiritual ideas. Harun Abu Jafar (786-809), sent the keys of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre to Charlemagne, who built a hospice for Latin pilgrims near the shrine.[34]. Hi Evan, thanks for the question! With the Delhi Sultanate established, Islam was spread across most parts of the Indian subcontinent. [30], Islam has continued to spread through commerce and migrations, especially in Southeast Asia, America and Europe. Muslim Kurdish, Persian, Turkish, Mongol, and Afghan leaders secured power in places as far apart as modern-day Turkey and modern-day northern India. This is talking about killing Direct link to Angel's post Im not 100% sure, however, Posted 6 years ago. Within roughly two decades, they created a massive Arab Muslim empire spanning three continents. As Jerusalem grew in importance to Muslims and pilgrimages increased, tolerance for other religions declined. contacts among merchants "or through the preaching of missionaries. This cultural exchange seems obvious to our modern sensibilities, but at the time, it was an entirely new way of thinking about the world. people convert to Islam "has always generated intense feeling. They were torturing and killing that early Muslim community. Religion was co-opted on both sides for the purposes of people who wanted power. Abbasid leadership was also dynastic and centralized. Islam traveled through these regions in many ways. Alongside the terminology of the "spread of Islam", scholarship of the subject has also given rise to the terms "Islamization",[a] "Islamicization",[14] and "Islamification" (Arabic: , romanized:aslamah). At the end of the Umayyad period, less than 10% of the people in Iran, Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Tunisia and Spain were Muslim. Another driving force for the change of the ruling class in the region was the concept among the increasing Muslim communities of the region when ruling dynasties to attempt to forge such ties of kinship by marriage. 600 - 1450 Regional and interregional interactions. In order to see this content you need to have both Javascript enabled and Flash installed. "In most cases, worldly Direct link to Liam Boss's post Why could the translation, Posted a year ago. The sources I've seen have, by the end of the Omayyad dynasty, only about 10%-30% of the conquered people convert to Islam, but much more convert during what's often referred to as the Golden Age of Islam, when Islam is collecting the works of the ancient Greeks, and and spiritual motives "for conversion blended together." "But if they fight you, then kill them. The Abbasids massive empirespanning over four thousand mileswas impressive, but very difficult to maintain. However, only a small fraction of the people who came under Arab Muslim control immediately adopted Islam. [4], Through the Muslim conquest of Persia, in the 7th century, Islam spread as far as the North Caucasus, which parts of it (notably Dagestan) were part of the Sasanid domains. prophets and the leadership to kill other people just because they disbelieve God in the Old Testament. This can be seen with the Ottomans taxing trade between Europe and the rest of the world, since Europe was Christian. His successors would rule the most powerful of Sultanates in the Swahili coast, during the peak of its expansion the Kilwa Sultanate stretched from Inhambane in the south to Malindi in the north. So they're really switching can anyone tell me where the sufi tradition comes from? The spread of Islam spans about 1,400 years. But the Arab military adventures do not seem to have been intended as a religious war of conversion. That's clearly a critical view of this. The Ghurid Empire soon evolved into the Delhi Sultanate, ruled by Qutb ud-Din Aibak, the founder of the Mamluk dynasty. His performance on the battlefield earned him . Missionaries and political expansion moved Islamic culture, but Islamic culture also traveled through trade. Ultimately, the highly centralized Abbasid caliphate fragmented into multiple smaller, independent political structures. Dome of the Treasury, Umayyad Mosque, Damascus, Syria. This is from Mohammed's farewell sermon. Not only did the Islamic conquests continue during this period through North Africa to Spain and France in the West and to Sind, Central Asia and Transoxiana in the East, but the basic social and legal institutions of the newly founded Islamic world were established. They are famous for inaugurating the Islamic golden age. Now in order to get context The early advance of Islam went hand in hand with military expansion - whether it was the motivation for it is difficult to tell, although one recent book suggests that Islam certainly facilitated the growth of Muslim power. [2] Trade played an important role in the spread of Islam in some parts of the world, such as Indonesia. Non-Muslim subjects under Arab Muslim rule were not especially opposed to their new rulers. There's also worldly motives. [5], As of 2016, there were 1.7 billion Muslims,[6][7] with one out of four people in the world being Muslim,[8] making Islam the second-largest religion. By the 16th century, most of the people of what are nowadays Iran and Azerbaijan had adopted the Shia branch of Islam through the conversion policies of the Safavids. A sense of unity grew among many though not all provinces and gradually formed the consciousness of a broadly Arab-Islamic population. If you're behind a web filter, please make sure that the domains *.kastatic.org and *.kasandbox.org are unblocked. Direct link to David Alexander's post Islam came to it's major , Posted 5 years ago. There you get an interesting perspective. It was perhaps this political decentralization and destabilization that led to the spread of Islam beyond the massive Abbasid empires borders. [45], It used to be argued that Zoroastrianism quickly collapsed in the wake of the Islamic conquest of Persia due to its intimate ties to the Sassanid state structure. "And if they cease, then indeed "God is forgiving and merciful. Direct link to David Alexander's post The fight was mainly over, Posted 6 months ago. However, the modern-day history of the Islamization of the region - or rather a conscious affiliation with Islam - dates to the reign of the ulus of the son of Genghis Khan, Jochi, who founded the Golden Horde,[76] which operated from the 1240s to 1502. your own primary resources. of the Old Testament and on Christian traditions. The initial conversions were of a flexible nature. Jonathan P. Berkey, The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800, 2003. In 1085 Alfonso VI of Castille took back Toledo. Learn how and when to remove this template message, Islamization Modern day (1970s to present), Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent, The History of India as told by its own Historians, Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent, "Table: Muslim Population by Country | Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project", "The Changing Global Religious Landscape", "The world's fastest-growing religion is ", "Byzantine Empire - The successors of Heraclius: Islam and the Bulgars", "Western North African Christianity: A History of the Christian Church in Western North Africa", "A Country Study: Somalia from The Library of Congress", "The Return of Religion: Currents of Resurgence, Convergence, and Divergence- The Cresset (Trinity 2009)", "Christian Number-Crunching reveals impressive growth", "Paul Stoller, "Money Has No Smell: The Africanization of New York City," Chicago: University of Chicago Press", "An Outline of the History of Persia During the Last Two Centuries (A.D. 1722-1922)", "Nothing found for The Future Of The Global Muslim Population Aspx?print=true", Online version last accessed on 1 May 1948, "Europe and Islam: Crescent Waxing, Cultures Clashing", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spread_of_Islam&oldid=1150952983.

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